diff --git a/Tethering/apex/Android.bp b/Tethering/apex/Android.bp
index e9a22a9..c115cb3 100644
--- a/Tethering/apex/Android.bp
+++ b/Tethering/apex/Android.bp
@@ -53,7 +53,6 @@
             jni_libs: [
                 "libservice-connectivity",
                 "libcom_android_connectivity_com_android_net_module_util_jni",
-                "libtraffic_controller_jni",
             ],
             native_shared_libs: ["libnetd_updatable"],
         },
diff --git a/service/Android.bp b/service/Android.bp
index 44285b1..96bbfe3 100644
--- a/service/Android.bp
+++ b/service/Android.bp
@@ -57,19 +57,24 @@
         "-Wthread-safety",
     ],
     srcs: [
-        "jni/com_android_server_TestNetworkService.cpp",
+        "jni/com_android_server_BpfNetMaps.cpp",
         "jni/com_android_server_connectivity_ClatCoordinator.cpp",
+        "jni/com_android_server_TestNetworkService.cpp",
         "jni/onload.cpp",
     ],
     stl: "libc++_static",
     header_libs: [
+        "bpf_connectivity_headers",
         "libbase_headers",
     ],
     static_libs: [
         "libbase",
         "libclat",
         "libip_checksum",
+        "libnetdutils",
         "libnetjniutils",
+        "libtraffic_controller",
+        "netd_aidl_interface-lateststable-ndk",
     ],
     shared_libs: [
         "liblog",
diff --git a/service/native/jni/com_android_server_BpfNetMaps.cpp b/service/jni/com_android_server_BpfNetMaps.cpp
similarity index 98%
rename from service/native/jni/com_android_server_BpfNetMaps.cpp
rename to service/jni/com_android_server_BpfNetMaps.cpp
index 7ab4d46..bde52a5 100644
--- a/service/native/jni/com_android_server_BpfNetMaps.cpp
+++ b/service/jni/com_android_server_BpfNetMaps.cpp
@@ -16,17 +16,17 @@
 
 #define LOG_TAG "TrafficControllerJni"
 
+#include "TrafficController.h"
+
+#include <bpf_shared.h>
 #include <jni.h>
+#include <log/log.h>
 #include <nativehelper/JNIHelp.h>
 #include <nativehelper/ScopedUtfChars.h>
 #include <nativehelper/ScopedPrimitiveArray.h>
 #include <net/if.h>
 #include <vector>
 
-#include "TrafficController.h"
-#include "android-base/logging.h"
-#include "bpf_shared.h"
-#include "utils/Log.h"
 
 using android::net::TrafficController;
 using android::netdutils::Status;
@@ -39,7 +39,8 @@
 namespace android {
 
 static void native_init(JNIEnv* env, jobject clazz) {
-  Status status = mTc.start();
+  // start is still being called by netd
+  Status status = mTc.initMaps();
    if (!isOk(status)) {
     ALOGE("%s failed", __func__);
   }
diff --git a/service/jni/com_android_server_TestNetworkService.cpp b/service/jni/com_android_server_TestNetworkService.cpp
index 1a0de32..4efd0e1 100644
--- a/service/jni/com_android_server_TestNetworkService.cpp
+++ b/service/jni/com_android_server_TestNetworkService.cpp
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@
     {"jniCreateTunTap", "(ZLjava/lang/String;)I", (void*)create},
 };
 
-int register_android_server_TestNetworkService(JNIEnv* env) {
+int register_com_android_server_TestNetworkService(JNIEnv* env) {
     return jniRegisterNativeMethods(env, "com/android/server/TestNetworkService", gMethods,
                                     NELEM(gMethods));
 }
diff --git a/service/jni/com_android_server_connectivity_ClatCoordinator.cpp b/service/jni/com_android_server_connectivity_ClatCoordinator.cpp
index b445462..ee512ec 100644
--- a/service/jni/com_android_server_connectivity_ClatCoordinator.cpp
+++ b/service/jni/com_android_server_connectivity_ClatCoordinator.cpp
@@ -519,7 +519,7 @@
          (void*)com_android_server_connectivity_ClatCoordinator_stopClatd},
 };
 
-int register_android_server_connectivity_ClatCoordinator(JNIEnv* env) {
+int register_com_android_server_connectivity_ClatCoordinator(JNIEnv* env) {
     return jniRegisterNativeMethods(env, "com/android/server/connectivity/ClatCoordinator",
                                     gMethods, NELEM(gMethods));
 }
diff --git a/service/jni/onload.cpp b/service/jni/onload.cpp
index 04d9671..facdad7 100644
--- a/service/jni/onload.cpp
+++ b/service/jni/onload.cpp
@@ -19,8 +19,9 @@
 
 namespace android {
 
-int register_android_server_TestNetworkService(JNIEnv* env);
-int register_android_server_connectivity_ClatCoordinator(JNIEnv* env);
+int register_com_android_server_TestNetworkService(JNIEnv* env);
+int register_com_android_server_connectivity_ClatCoordinator(JNIEnv* env);
+int register_com_android_server_BpfNetMaps(JNIEnv* env);
 
 extern "C" jint JNI_OnLoad(JavaVM* vm, void*) {
     JNIEnv *env;
@@ -29,11 +30,15 @@
         return JNI_ERR;
     }
 
-    if (register_android_server_TestNetworkService(env) < 0) {
+    if (register_com_android_server_TestNetworkService(env) < 0) {
         return JNI_ERR;
     }
 
-    if (register_android_server_connectivity_ClatCoordinator(env) < 0) {
+    if (register_com_android_server_connectivity_ClatCoordinator(env) < 0) {
+        return JNI_ERR;
+    }
+
+    if (register_com_android_server_BpfNetMaps(env) < 0) {
         return JNI_ERR;
     }
 
diff --git a/service/native/Android.bp b/service/native/Android.bp
index b49457d..0e805e2 100644
--- a/service/native/Android.bp
+++ b/service/native/Android.bp
@@ -52,37 +52,6 @@
     min_sdk_version: "30",
 }
 
-cc_library_shared {
-    name: "libtraffic_controller_jni",
-    cflags: [
-        "-Wall",
-        "-Werror",
-        "-Wno-unused-parameter",
-        "-Wthread-safety",
-    ],
-    srcs: [
-        "jni/*.cpp",
-    ],
-    header_libs: [
-        "bpf_connectivity_headers",
-    ],
-    static_libs: [
-        "libnetdutils",
-        "libtraffic_controller",
-        "netd_aidl_interface-lateststable-ndk",
-    ],
-    shared_libs: [
-        "libbase",
-        "liblog",
-        "libutils",
-        "libnativehelper",
-    ],
-    apex_available: [
-        "com.android.tethering",
-    ],
-    min_sdk_version: "30",
-}
-
 cc_test {
     name: "traffic_controller_unit_test",
     test_suites: ["general-tests"],
diff --git a/service/native/TrafficController.cpp b/service/native/TrafficController.cpp
index 97fcc43..51dd502 100644
--- a/service/native/TrafficController.cpp
+++ b/service/native/TrafficController.cpp
@@ -683,8 +683,6 @@
     }
 }
 
-const String16 TrafficController::DUMP_KEYWORD = String16("trafficcontroller");
-
 void TrafficController::dump(DumpWriter& dw, bool verbose) {
     std::lock_guard guard(mMutex);
     ScopedIndent indentTop(dw);
diff --git a/service/native/include/TrafficController.h b/service/native/include/TrafficController.h
index c050871..2d89344 100644
--- a/service/native/include/TrafficController.h
+++ b/service/native/include/TrafficController.h
@@ -25,7 +25,6 @@
 #include "netdutils/DumpWriter.h"
 #include "netdutils/NetlinkListener.h"
 #include "netdutils/StatusOr.h"
-#include "utils/String16.h"
 
 namespace android {
 namespace net {
@@ -33,12 +32,22 @@
 using netdutils::StatusOr;
 
 class TrafficController {
-  public:
+    // TODO: marking this private for right now, as start is already called by
+    // netd. start() calls initMaps(), initPrograms(), and sets up the socket
+    // destroy listener. Both initPrograms() and setting up the socket destroy
+    // listener should only be done once.
     /*
      * Initialize the whole controller
      */
     netdutils::Status start();
 
+  public:
+    static constexpr char DUMP_KEYWORD[] = "trafficcontroller";
+
+    // TODO: marking this public for right now, as start() is already called by
+    // netd.
+    netdutils::Status initMaps() EXCLUDES(mMutex);
+
     int setCounterSet(int counterSetNum, uid_t uid, uid_t callingUid) EXCLUDES(mMutex);
 
     /*
@@ -84,7 +93,6 @@
 
     netdutils::Status updateUidOwnerMap(const uint32_t uid,
                                         UidOwnerMatchType matchType, IptOp op) EXCLUDES(mMutex);
-    static const String16 DUMP_KEYWORD;
 
     int toggleUidOwnerMap(ChildChain chain, bool enable) EXCLUDES(mMutex);
 
@@ -187,8 +195,6 @@
 
     std::mutex mMutex;
 
-    netdutils::Status initMaps() EXCLUDES(mMutex);
-
     // Keep track of uids that have permission UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS so we don't
     // need to call back to system server for permission check.
     std::set<uid_t> mPrivilegedUser GUARDED_BY(mMutex);
diff --git a/service/native/jni/onload.cpp b/service/native/jni/onload.cpp
deleted file mode 100644
index df7c77b..0000000
--- a/service/native/jni/onload.cpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,41 +0,0 @@
-/*
- * Copyright (C) 2022 The Android Open Source Project
- *
- * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
- * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
- * You may obtain a copy of the License at
- *
- *      http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
- *
- * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
- * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
- * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
- * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
- * limitations under the License.
- */
-
-#define LOG_TAG "TrafficControllerJni"
-
-#include <jni.h>
-#include <nativehelper/JNIHelp.h>
-
-#include "utils/Log.h"
-
-namespace android {
-
-int register_com_android_server_BpfNetMaps(JNIEnv* env);
-
-extern "C" jint JNI_OnLoad(JavaVM* vm, void*) {
-    JNIEnv *env;
-    if (vm->GetEnv(reinterpret_cast<void**>(&env), JNI_VERSION_1_6) != JNI_OK) {
-        ALOGE("%s: ERROR: GetEnv failed", __func__);
-        return JNI_ERR;
-    }
-
-    if (register_com_android_server_BpfNetMaps(env) < 0)
-      return JNI_ERR;
-
-    return JNI_VERSION_1_6;
-}
-
-}; // namespace android
diff --git a/service/src/com/android/server/BpfNetMaps.java b/service/src/com/android/server/BpfNetMaps.java
index 9d89788..e444a12 100644
--- a/service/src/com/android/server/BpfNetMaps.java
+++ b/service/src/com/android/server/BpfNetMaps.java
@@ -16,6 +16,8 @@
 
 package com.android.server;
 
+import android.net.INetd;
+import android.os.RemoteException;
 import android.os.ServiceSpecificException;
 import android.system.Os;
 import android.util.Log;
@@ -27,10 +29,19 @@
  */
 public class BpfNetMaps {
     private static final String TAG = "BpfNetMaps";
+    private final INetd mNetd;
+    // TODO: change USE_JNI to SdkLevel.isAtLeastT()
+    private static final boolean USE_JNI = false;
 
     static {
-        System.loadLibrary("traffic_controller_jni");
-        native_init();
+        if (USE_JNI) {
+            System.loadLibrary("traffic_controller_jni");
+            native_init();
+        }
+    }
+
+    public BpfNetMaps(INetd netd) {
+        mNetd = netd;
     }
 
    /**
@@ -41,6 +52,14 @@
     *         cause of the failure.
     */
     public void addNaughtyApp(final int uid) {
+        if (!USE_JNI) {
+            try {
+                mNetd.bandwidthAddNaughtyApp(uid);
+            } catch (RemoteException e) {
+                throw new IllegalStateException(e);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
         final int err = native_addNaughtyApp(uid);
         if (err != 0) {
             throw new ServiceSpecificException(err, "Unable to add naughty app: "
@@ -56,6 +75,14 @@
     *         cause of the failure.
     */
     public void removeNaughtyApp(final int uid) {
+        if (!USE_JNI) {
+            try {
+                mNetd.bandwidthRemoveNaughtyApp(uid);
+            } catch (RemoteException e) {
+                throw new IllegalStateException(e);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
         final int err = native_removeNaughtyApp(uid);
         if (err != 0) {
             throw new ServiceSpecificException(err, "Unable to remove naughty app: "
@@ -71,6 +98,14 @@
     *         cause of the failure.
     */
     public void addNiceApp(final int uid) {
+        if (!USE_JNI) {
+            try {
+                mNetd.bandwidthAddNiceApp(uid);
+            } catch (RemoteException e) {
+                throw new IllegalStateException(e);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
         final int err = native_addNiceApp(uid);
         if (err != 0) {
             throw new ServiceSpecificException(err, "Unable to add nice app: "
@@ -86,6 +121,14 @@
     *         cause of the failure.
     */
     public void removeNiceApp(final int uid) {
+        if (!USE_JNI) {
+            try {
+                mNetd.bandwidthRemoveNiceApp(uid);
+            } catch (RemoteException e) {
+                throw new IllegalStateException(e);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
         final int err = native_removeNiceApp(uid);
         if (err != 0) {
             throw new ServiceSpecificException(err, "Unable to remove nice app: "
@@ -102,6 +145,14 @@
     *         cause of the failure.
     */
     public void setChildChain(final int childChain, final boolean enable) {
+        if (!USE_JNI) {
+            try {
+                mNetd.firewallEnableChildChain(childChain, enable);
+            } catch (RemoteException e) {
+                throw new IllegalStateException(e);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
         final int err = native_setChildChain(childChain, enable);
         if (err != 0) {
             throw new ServiceSpecificException(-err, "Unable to set child chain: "
@@ -124,6 +175,14 @@
      */
     public int replaceUidChain(final String chainName, final boolean isAllowlist,
             final int[] uids) {
+        if (!USE_JNI) {
+            try {
+                mNetd.firewallReplaceUidChain(chainName, isAllowlist, uids);
+            } catch (RemoteException e) {
+                throw new IllegalStateException(e);
+            }
+            return 0;
+        }
         final int err = native_replaceUidChain(chainName, isAllowlist, uids);
         if (err != 0) {
             Log.e(TAG, "replaceUidChain failed: " + Os.strerror(-err));
@@ -140,8 +199,15 @@
     * @throws ServiceSpecificException in case of failure, with an error code indicating the
     *         cause of the failure.
     */
-    public void setUidRule(final int childChain, final int uid,
-            final int firewallRule) {
+    public void setUidRule(final int childChain, final int uid, final int firewallRule) {
+        if (!USE_JNI) {
+            try {
+                mNetd.firewallSetUidRule(childChain, uid, firewallRule);
+            } catch (RemoteException e) {
+                throw new IllegalStateException(e);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
         final int err = native_setUidRule(childChain, uid, firewallRule);
         if (err != 0) {
             throw new ServiceSpecificException(-err, "Unable to set uid rule: "
@@ -166,6 +232,14 @@
      *         cause of the failure.
      */
     public void addUidInterfaceRules(final String ifName, final int[] uids) {
+        if (!USE_JNI) {
+            try {
+                mNetd.firewallAddUidInterfaceRules(ifName, uids);
+            } catch (RemoteException e) {
+                Log.e(TAG, "Exception when updating permissions: " + e);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
         final int err = native_addUidInterfaceRules(ifName, uids);
         if (err != 0) {
             throw new ServiceSpecificException(err, "Unable to add uid interface rules: "
@@ -184,6 +258,14 @@
      *         cause of the failure.
      */
     public void removeUidInterfaceRules(final int[] uids) {
+        if (!USE_JNI) {
+            try {
+                mNetd.firewallRemoveUidInterfaceRules(uids);
+            } catch (RemoteException e) {
+                Log.e(TAG, "Exception when updating permissions: " + e);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
         final int err = native_removeUidInterfaceRules(uids);
         if (err != 0) {
             throw new ServiceSpecificException(err, "Unable to remove uid interface rules: "
@@ -197,6 +279,14 @@
     *         cause of the failure.
     */
     public void swapActiveStatsMap() {
+        if (!USE_JNI) {
+            try {
+                mNetd.trafficSwapActiveStatsMap();
+            } catch (RemoteException e) {
+                throw new IllegalStateException(e);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
         final int err = native_swapActiveStatsMap();
         if (err != 0) {
             throw new ServiceSpecificException(err, "Unable to swap active stats map: "
@@ -213,8 +303,16 @@
     *                   revoke all permissions for the uids.
     * @param uids uid of users to grant permission
     */
-    public void setNetPermForUids(final int permission, final int[] uids) {
-        native_setPermissionForUids(permission, uids);
+    public void setNetPermForUids(final int permissions, final int[] uids) {
+        if (!USE_JNI) {
+            try {
+                mNetd.trafficSetNetPermForUids(permissions, uids);
+            } catch (RemoteException e) {
+                Log.e(TAG, "Pass appId list of special permission failed." + e);
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        native_setPermissionForUids(permissions, uids);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -255,7 +353,7 @@
     private native int native_addUidInterfaceRules(String ifName, int[] uids);
     private native int native_removeUidInterfaceRules(int[] uids);
     private native int native_swapActiveStatsMap();
-    private native void native_setPermissionForUids(int permission, int[] uids);
+    private native void native_setPermissionForUids(int permissions, int[] uids);
     private native int native_setCounterSet(int counterSet, int uid);
     private native int native_deleteTagData(int tag, int uid);
 }
diff --git a/service/src/com/android/server/ConnectivityService.java b/service/src/com/android/server/ConnectivityService.java
index f587cf0..a453270 100644
--- a/service/src/com/android/server/ConnectivityService.java
+++ b/service/src/com/android/server/ConnectivityService.java
@@ -397,6 +397,7 @@
     private NetworkStatsManager mStatsManager;
     private NetworkPolicyManager mPolicyManager;
     private final NetdCallback mNetdCallback;
+    private final BpfNetMaps mBpfNetMaps;
 
     /**
      * TestNetworkService (lazily) created upon first usage. Locked to prevent creation of multiple
@@ -1344,6 +1345,15 @@
             return DeviceConfigUtils.isFeatureEnabled(context, NAMESPACE_CONNECTIVITY, name,
                     TETHERING_MODULE_NAME, defaultEnabled);
         }
+
+        /**
+         * Get the BpfNetMaps implementation to use in ConnectivityService.
+         * @param netd
+         * @return BpfNetMaps implementation.
+         */
+        public BpfNetMaps getBpfNetMaps(INetd netd) {
+            return new BpfNetMaps(netd);
+        }
     }
 
     public ConnectivityService(Context context) {
@@ -1412,6 +1422,7 @@
         mProxyTracker = mDeps.makeProxyTracker(mContext, mHandler);
 
         mNetd = netd;
+        mBpfNetMaps = mDeps.getBpfNetMaps(netd);
         mTelephonyManager = (TelephonyManager) mContext.getSystemService(Context.TELEPHONY_SERVICE);
         mAppOpsManager = (AppOpsManager) mContext.getSystemService(Context.APP_OPS_SERVICE);
         mLocationPermissionChecker = mDeps.makeLocationPermissionChecker(mContext);
@@ -1445,7 +1456,7 @@
 
         mUserManager = (UserManager) context.getSystemService(Context.USER_SERVICE);
 
-        mPermissionMonitor = new PermissionMonitor(mContext, mNetd);
+        mPermissionMonitor = new PermissionMonitor(mContext, mNetd, mBpfNetMaps);
 
         mUserAllContext = mContext.createContextAsUser(UserHandle.ALL, 0 /* flags */);
         // Listen for user add/removes to inform PermissionMonitor.
@@ -10828,11 +10839,11 @@
 
         try {
             if (add) {
-                mNetd.bandwidthAddNiceApp(uid);
+                mBpfNetMaps.addNiceApp(uid);
             } else {
-                mNetd.bandwidthRemoveNiceApp(uid);
+                mBpfNetMaps.removeNiceApp(uid);
             }
-        } catch (RemoteException | ServiceSpecificException e) {
+        } catch (ServiceSpecificException e) {
             throw new IllegalStateException(e);
         }
     }
@@ -10843,11 +10854,11 @@
 
         try {
             if (add) {
-                mNetd.bandwidthAddNaughtyApp(uid);
+                mBpfNetMaps.addNaughtyApp(uid);
             } else {
-                mNetd.bandwidthRemoveNaughtyApp(uid);
+                mBpfNetMaps.removeNaughtyApp(uid);
             }
-        } catch (RemoteException | ServiceSpecificException e) {
+        } catch (ServiceSpecificException e) {
             throw new IllegalStateException(e);
         }
     }
@@ -10857,9 +10868,9 @@
         enforceNetworkStackOrSettingsPermission();
 
         try {
-            mNetd.firewallSetUidRule(chain, uid,
+            mBpfNetMaps.setUidRule(chain, uid,
                     allow ? INetd.FIREWALL_RULE_ALLOW : INetd.FIREWALL_RULE_DENY);
-        } catch (RemoteException | ServiceSpecificException e) {
+        } catch (ServiceSpecificException e) {
             throw new IllegalStateException(e);
         }
     }
@@ -10869,8 +10880,8 @@
         enforceNetworkStackOrSettingsPermission();
 
         try {
-            mNetd.firewallEnableChildChain(chain, enable);
-        } catch (RemoteException | ServiceSpecificException e) {
+            mBpfNetMaps.setChildChain(chain, enable);
+        } catch (ServiceSpecificException e) {
             throw new IllegalStateException(e);
         }
     }
@@ -10882,22 +10893,22 @@
         try {
             switch (chain) {
                 case ConnectivityManager.FIREWALL_CHAIN_DOZABLE:
-                    mNetd.firewallReplaceUidChain("fw_dozable", true /* isAllowList */, uids);
+                    mBpfNetMaps.replaceUidChain("fw_dozable", true /* isAllowList */, uids);
                     break;
                 case ConnectivityManager.FIREWALL_CHAIN_STANDBY:
-                    mNetd.firewallReplaceUidChain("fw_standby", false /* isAllowList */, uids);
+                    mBpfNetMaps.replaceUidChain("fw_standby", false /* isAllowList */, uids);
                     break;
                 case ConnectivityManager.FIREWALL_CHAIN_POWERSAVE:
-                    mNetd.firewallReplaceUidChain("fw_powersave", true /* isAllowList */, uids);
+                    mBpfNetMaps.replaceUidChain("fw_powersave", true /* isAllowList */, uids);
                     break;
                 case ConnectivityManager.FIREWALL_CHAIN_RESTRICTED:
-                    mNetd.firewallReplaceUidChain("fw_restricted", true /* isAllowList */, uids);
+                    mBpfNetMaps.replaceUidChain("fw_restricted", true /* isAllowList */, uids);
                     break;
                 default:
                     throw new IllegalArgumentException("replaceFirewallChain with invalid chain: "
                             + chain);
             }
-        } catch (RemoteException | ServiceSpecificException e) {
+        } catch (ServiceSpecificException e) {
             throw new IllegalStateException(e);
         }
     }
@@ -10906,8 +10917,8 @@
     public void swapActiveStatsMap() {
         enforceNetworkStackOrSettingsPermission();
         try {
-            mNetd.trafficSwapActiveStatsMap();
-        } catch (RemoteException | ServiceSpecificException e) {
+            mBpfNetMaps.swapActiveStatsMap();
+        } catch (ServiceSpecificException e) {
             throw new IllegalStateException(e);
         }
     }
diff --git a/service/src/com/android/server/connectivity/PermissionMonitor.java b/service/src/com/android/server/connectivity/PermissionMonitor.java
index 439db89..c9c1776 100755
--- a/service/src/com/android/server/connectivity/PermissionMonitor.java
+++ b/service/src/com/android/server/connectivity/PermissionMonitor.java
@@ -68,6 +68,7 @@
 import com.android.internal.annotations.VisibleForTesting;
 import com.android.internal.util.IndentingPrintWriter;
 import com.android.net.module.util.CollectionUtils;
+import com.android.server.BpfNetMaps;
 
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.HashMap;
@@ -93,6 +94,7 @@
     private final INetd mNetd;
     private final Dependencies mDeps;
     private final Context mContext;
+    private final BpfNetMaps mBpfNetMaps;
 
     @GuardedBy("this")
     private final Set<UserHandle> mUsers = new HashSet<>();
@@ -184,12 +186,14 @@
         }
     }
 
-    public PermissionMonitor(@NonNull final Context context, @NonNull final INetd netd) {
-        this(context, netd, new Dependencies());
+    public PermissionMonitor(@NonNull final Context context, @NonNull final INetd netd,
+            @NonNull final BpfNetMaps bpfNetMaps) {
+        this(context, netd, bpfNetMaps, new Dependencies());
     }
 
     @VisibleForTesting
     PermissionMonitor(@NonNull final Context context, @NonNull final INetd netd,
+            @NonNull final BpfNetMaps bpfNetMaps,
             @NonNull final Dependencies deps) {
         mPackageManager = context.getPackageManager();
         mUserManager = (UserManager) context.getSystemService(Context.USER_SERVICE);
@@ -197,6 +201,7 @@
         mNetd = netd;
         mDeps = deps;
         mContext = context;
+        mBpfNetMaps = bpfNetMaps;
     }
 
     private int getPackageNetdNetworkPermission(@NonNull final PackageInfo app) {
@@ -803,9 +808,9 @@
         }
         try {
             if (add) {
-                mNetd.firewallAddUidInterfaceRules(iface, toIntArray(uids));
+                mBpfNetMaps.addUidInterfaceRules(iface, toIntArray(uids));
             } else {
-                mNetd.firewallRemoveUidInterfaceRules(toIntArray(uids));
+                mBpfNetMaps.removeUidInterfaceRules(toIntArray(uids));
             }
         } catch (ServiceSpecificException e) {
             // Silently ignore exception when device does not support eBPF, otherwise just log
@@ -813,8 +818,6 @@
             if (e.errorCode != OsConstants.EOPNOTSUPP) {
                 loge("Exception when updating permissions: ", e);
             }
-        } catch (RemoteException e) {
-            loge("Exception when updating permissions: ", e);
         }
     }
 
@@ -878,26 +881,27 @@
         try {
             // TODO: add a lock inside netd to protect IPC trafficSetNetPermForUids()
             if (allPermissionAppIds.size() != 0) {
-                mNetd.trafficSetNetPermForUids(
+                mBpfNetMaps.setNetPermForUids(
                         PERMISSION_INTERNET | PERMISSION_UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS,
                         toIntArray(allPermissionAppIds));
             }
             if (internetPermissionAppIds.size() != 0) {
-                mNetd.trafficSetNetPermForUids(PERMISSION_INTERNET,
+                mBpfNetMaps.setNetPermForUids(PERMISSION_INTERNET,
                         toIntArray(internetPermissionAppIds));
             }
             if (updateStatsPermissionAppIds.size() != 0) {
-                mNetd.trafficSetNetPermForUids(PERMISSION_UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS,
+                mBpfNetMaps.setNetPermForUids(PERMISSION_UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS,
                         toIntArray(updateStatsPermissionAppIds));
             }
             if (noPermissionAppIds.size() != 0) {
-                mNetd.trafficSetNetPermForUids(PERMISSION_NONE, toIntArray(noPermissionAppIds));
+                mBpfNetMaps.setNetPermForUids(PERMISSION_NONE,
+                        toIntArray(noPermissionAppIds));
             }
             if (uninstalledAppIds.size() != 0) {
-                mNetd.trafficSetNetPermForUids(PERMISSION_UNINSTALLED,
+                mBpfNetMaps.setNetPermForUids(PERMISSION_UNINSTALLED,
                         toIntArray(uninstalledAppIds));
             }
-        } catch (RemoteException e) {
+        } catch (ServiceSpecificException e) {
             Log.e(TAG, "Pass appId list of special permission failed." + e);
         }
     }
diff --git a/tests/unit/java/com/android/server/BpfNetMapsTest.java b/tests/unit/java/com/android/server/BpfNetMapsTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ac21e77
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/unit/java/com/android/server/BpfNetMapsTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,86 @@
+/*
+ * Copyright (C) 2022 The Android Open Source Project
+ *
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *      http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+
+package com.android.server;
+
+import static android.net.INetd.FIREWALL_CHAIN_DOZABLE;
+import static android.net.INetd.FIREWALL_RULE_ALLOW;
+import static android.net.INetd.PERMISSION_INTERNET;
+
+import static org.junit.Assume.assumeFalse;
+import static org.mockito.Mockito.verify;
+
+import android.net.INetd;
+import android.os.Build;
+
+import androidx.test.filters.SmallTest;
+
+import com.android.modules.utils.build.SdkLevel;
+import com.android.testutils.DevSdkIgnoreRule;
+import com.android.testutils.DevSdkIgnoreRunner;
+
+import org.junit.Before;
+import org.junit.Test;
+import org.junit.runner.RunWith;
+import org.mockito.Mock;
+import org.mockito.MockitoAnnotations;
+
+@RunWith(DevSdkIgnoreRunner.class)
+@SmallTest
+@DevSdkIgnoreRule.IgnoreUpTo(Build.VERSION_CODES.R)
+public final class BpfNetMapsTest {
+    private static final String TAG = "BpfNetMapsTest";
+    private static final int TEST_UID = 10086;
+    private static final int[] TEST_UIDS = {10002, 10003};
+    private static final String IFNAME = "wlan0";
+    private static final String CHAINNAME = "fw_dozable";
+    private BpfNetMaps mBpfNetMaps;
+
+    @Mock INetd mNetd;
+
+    @Before
+    public void setUp() {
+        MockitoAnnotations.initMocks(this);
+        mBpfNetMaps = new BpfNetMaps(mNetd);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    public void testBpfNetMapsBeforeT() throws Exception {
+        assumeFalse(SdkLevel.isAtLeastT());
+        mBpfNetMaps.addNaughtyApp(TEST_UID);
+        verify(mNetd).bandwidthAddNaughtyApp(TEST_UID);
+        mBpfNetMaps.removeNaughtyApp(TEST_UID);
+        verify(mNetd).bandwidthRemoveNaughtyApp(TEST_UID);
+        mBpfNetMaps.addNiceApp(TEST_UID);
+        verify(mNetd).bandwidthAddNiceApp(TEST_UID);
+        mBpfNetMaps.removeNiceApp(TEST_UID);
+        verify(mNetd).bandwidthRemoveNiceApp(TEST_UID);
+        mBpfNetMaps.setChildChain(FIREWALL_CHAIN_DOZABLE, true);
+        verify(mNetd).firewallEnableChildChain(FIREWALL_CHAIN_DOZABLE, true);
+        mBpfNetMaps.replaceUidChain(CHAINNAME, true, TEST_UIDS);
+        verify(mNetd).firewallReplaceUidChain(CHAINNAME, true, TEST_UIDS);
+        mBpfNetMaps.setUidRule(FIREWALL_CHAIN_DOZABLE, TEST_UID, FIREWALL_RULE_ALLOW);
+        verify(mNetd).firewallSetUidRule(FIREWALL_CHAIN_DOZABLE, TEST_UID, FIREWALL_RULE_ALLOW);
+        mBpfNetMaps.addUidInterfaceRules(IFNAME, TEST_UIDS);
+        verify(mNetd).firewallAddUidInterfaceRules(IFNAME, TEST_UIDS);
+        mBpfNetMaps.removeUidInterfaceRules(TEST_UIDS);
+        verify(mNetd).firewallRemoveUidInterfaceRules(TEST_UIDS);
+        mBpfNetMaps.swapActiveStatsMap();
+        verify(mNetd).trafficSwapActiveStatsMap();
+        mBpfNetMaps.setNetPermForUids(PERMISSION_INTERNET, TEST_UIDS);
+        verify(mNetd).trafficSetNetPermForUids(PERMISSION_INTERNET, TEST_UIDS);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/unit/java/com/android/server/connectivity/PermissionMonitorTest.java b/tests/unit/java/com/android/server/connectivity/PermissionMonitorTest.java
index 99ef80b..6590543 100644
--- a/tests/unit/java/com/android/server/connectivity/PermissionMonitorTest.java
+++ b/tests/unit/java/com/android/server/connectivity/PermissionMonitorTest.java
@@ -89,6 +89,7 @@
 import androidx.test.filters.SmallTest;
 
 import com.android.net.module.util.CollectionUtils;
+import com.android.server.BpfNetMaps;
 import com.android.testutils.DevSdkIgnoreRule;
 import com.android.testutils.DevSdkIgnoreRunner;
 
@@ -146,9 +147,11 @@
     @Mock private UserManager mUserManager;
     @Mock private PermissionMonitor.Dependencies mDeps;
     @Mock private SystemConfigManager mSystemConfigManager;
+    @Mock private BpfNetMaps mBpfNetMaps;
 
     private PermissionMonitor mPermissionMonitor;
     private NetdMonitor mNetdMonitor;
+    private BpfMapMonitor mBpfMapMonitor;
 
     @Before
     public void setUp() throws Exception {
@@ -177,8 +180,9 @@
         // by default.
         doReturn(VERSION_Q).when(mDeps).getDeviceFirstSdkInt();
 
-        mPermissionMonitor = new PermissionMonitor(mContext, mNetdService, mDeps);
+        mPermissionMonitor = new PermissionMonitor(mContext, mNetdService, mBpfNetMaps, mDeps);
         mNetdMonitor = new NetdMonitor(mNetdService);
+        mBpfMapMonitor = new BpfMapMonitor(mBpfNetMaps);
 
         doReturn(List.of()).when(mPackageManager).getInstalledPackagesAsUser(anyInt(), anyInt());
     }
@@ -511,9 +515,37 @@
         assertBackgroundPermission(true, MOCK_PACKAGE2, MOCK_UID12, NETWORK_STACK);
     }
 
+    private class BpfMapMonitor {
+        private final SparseIntArray mAppIdsTrafficPermission = new SparseIntArray();
+        private static final int DOES_NOT_EXIST = -2;
+
+        BpfMapMonitor(BpfNetMaps mockBpfmap) throws Exception {
+            // Add hook to verify and track result of trafficSetNetPerm.
+            doAnswer((InvocationOnMock invocation) -> {
+                final Object[] args = invocation.getArguments();
+                final int permission = (int) args[0];
+                for (final int appId : (int[]) args[1]) {
+                    mAppIdsTrafficPermission.put(appId, permission);
+                }
+                return null;
+            }).when(mockBpfmap).setNetPermForUids(anyInt(), any(int[].class));
+        }
+
+        public void expectTrafficPerm(int permission, int... appIds) {
+            for (final int appId : appIds) {
+                if (mAppIdsTrafficPermission.get(appId, DOES_NOT_EXIST) == DOES_NOT_EXIST) {
+                    fail("appId " + appId + " does not exist.");
+                }
+                if (mAppIdsTrafficPermission.get(appId) != permission) {
+                    fail("appId " + appId + " has wrong permission: "
+                            + mAppIdsTrafficPermission.get(appId));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     private class NetdMonitor {
         private final SparseIntArray mUidsNetworkPermission = new SparseIntArray();
-        private final SparseIntArray mAppIdsTrafficPermission = new SparseIntArray();
         private static final int DOES_NOT_EXIST = -2;
 
         NetdMonitor(INetd mockNetd) throws Exception {
@@ -545,16 +577,6 @@
                 }
                 return null;
             }).when(mockNetd).networkClearPermissionForUser(any(int[].class));
-
-            // Add hook to verify and track result of trafficSetNetPerm.
-            doAnswer((InvocationOnMock invocation) -> {
-                final Object[] args = invocation.getArguments();
-                final int permission = (int) args[0];
-                for (final int appId : (int[]) args[1]) {
-                    mAppIdsTrafficPermission.put(appId, permission);
-                }
-                return null;
-            }).when(mockNetd).trafficSetNetPermForUids(anyInt(), any(int[].class));
         }
 
         public void expectNetworkPerm(int permission, UserHandle[] users, int... appIds) {
@@ -581,18 +603,6 @@
                 }
             }
         }
-
-        public void expectTrafficPerm(int permission, int... appIds) {
-            for (final int appId : appIds) {
-                if (mAppIdsTrafficPermission.get(appId, DOES_NOT_EXIST) == DOES_NOT_EXIST) {
-                    fail("appId " + appId + " does not exist.");
-                }
-                if (mAppIdsTrafficPermission.get(appId) != permission) {
-                    fail("appId " + appId + " has wrong permission: "
-                            + mAppIdsTrafficPermission.get(appId));
-                }
-            }
-        }
     }
 
     @Test
@@ -702,30 +712,30 @@
 
         // When VPN is connected, expect a rule to be set up for user app MOCK_UID11
         mPermissionMonitor.onVpnUidRangesAdded("tun0", vpnRange1, VPN_UID);
-        verify(mNetdService).firewallAddUidInterfaceRules(eq("tun0"), aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID11}));
+        verify(mBpfNetMaps).addUidInterfaceRules(eq("tun0"), aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID11}));
 
-        reset(mNetdService);
+        reset(mBpfNetMaps);
 
         // When MOCK_UID11 package is uninstalled and reinstalled, expect Netd to be updated
         mPermissionMonitor.onPackageRemoved(MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_UID11);
-        verify(mNetdService).firewallRemoveUidInterfaceRules(aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID11}));
+        verify(mBpfNetMaps).removeUidInterfaceRules(aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID11}));
         mPermissionMonitor.onPackageAdded(MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_UID11);
-        verify(mNetdService).firewallAddUidInterfaceRules(eq("tun0"), aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID11}));
+        verify(mBpfNetMaps).addUidInterfaceRules(eq("tun0"), aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID11}));
 
-        reset(mNetdService);
+        reset(mBpfNetMaps);
 
         // During VPN uid update (vpnRange1 -> vpnRange2), ConnectivityService first deletes the
         // old UID rules then adds the new ones. Expect netd to be updated
         mPermissionMonitor.onVpnUidRangesRemoved("tun0", vpnRange1, VPN_UID);
-        verify(mNetdService).firewallRemoveUidInterfaceRules(aryEq(new int[] {MOCK_UID11}));
+        verify(mBpfNetMaps).removeUidInterfaceRules(aryEq(new int[] {MOCK_UID11}));
         mPermissionMonitor.onVpnUidRangesAdded("tun0", vpnRange2, VPN_UID);
-        verify(mNetdService).firewallAddUidInterfaceRules(eq("tun0"), aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID12}));
+        verify(mBpfNetMaps).addUidInterfaceRules(eq("tun0"), aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID12}));
 
-        reset(mNetdService);
+        reset(mBpfNetMaps);
 
         // When VPN is disconnected, expect rules to be torn down
         mPermissionMonitor.onVpnUidRangesRemoved("tun0", vpnRange2, VPN_UID);
-        verify(mNetdService).firewallRemoveUidInterfaceRules(aryEq(new int[] {MOCK_UID12}));
+        verify(mBpfNetMaps).removeUidInterfaceRules(aryEq(new int[] {MOCK_UID12}));
         assertNull(mPermissionMonitor.getVpnUidRanges("tun0"));
     }
 
@@ -744,13 +754,13 @@
 
         // Newly-installed package should have uid rules added
         addPackageForUsers(new UserHandle[]{MOCK_USER1, MOCK_USER2}, MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_APPID1);
-        verify(mNetdService).firewallAddUidInterfaceRules(eq("tun0"), aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID11}));
-        verify(mNetdService).firewallAddUidInterfaceRules(eq("tun0"), aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID21}));
+        verify(mBpfNetMaps).addUidInterfaceRules(eq("tun0"), aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID11}));
+        verify(mBpfNetMaps).addUidInterfaceRules(eq("tun0"), aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID21}));
 
         // Removed package should have its uid rules removed
         mPermissionMonitor.onPackageRemoved(MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_UID11);
-        verify(mNetdService).firewallRemoveUidInterfaceRules(aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID11}));
-        verify(mNetdService, never()).firewallRemoveUidInterfaceRules(aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID21}));
+        verify(mBpfNetMaps).removeUidInterfaceRules(aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID11}));
+        verify(mBpfNetMaps, never()).removeUidInterfaceRules(aryEq(new int[]{MOCK_UID21}));
     }
 
 
@@ -784,91 +794,91 @@
         // Send the permission information to netd, expect permission updated.
         mPermissionMonitor.sendAppIdsTrafficPermission(netdPermissionsAppIds);
 
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_NONE, MOCK_APPID2);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, SYSTEM_APPID1);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS, SYSTEM_APPID2);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_NONE, MOCK_APPID2);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, SYSTEM_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS, SYSTEM_APPID2);
 
         // Update permission of MOCK_APPID1, expect new permission show up.
         mPermissionMonitor.sendPackagePermissionsForAppId(MOCK_APPID1, PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
 
         // Change permissions of SYSTEM_APPID2, expect new permission show up and old permission
         // revoked.
         mPermissionMonitor.sendPackagePermissionsForAppId(SYSTEM_APPID2, PERMISSION_INTERNET);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, SYSTEM_APPID2);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, SYSTEM_APPID2);
 
         // Revoke permission from SYSTEM_APPID1, expect no permission stored.
         mPermissionMonitor.sendPackagePermissionsForAppId(SYSTEM_APPID1, PERMISSION_NONE);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_NONE, SYSTEM_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_NONE, SYSTEM_APPID1);
     }
 
     @Test
     public void testPackageInstall() throws Exception {
         addPackage(MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_UID11, INTERNET, UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
 
         addPackage(MOCK_PACKAGE2, MOCK_UID12, INTERNET);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID2);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID2);
     }
 
     @Test
     public void testPackageInstallSharedUid() throws Exception {
         addPackage(MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_UID11, INTERNET, UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
 
         // Install another package with the same uid and no permissions should not cause the app id
         // to lose permissions.
         addPackage(MOCK_PACKAGE2, MOCK_UID11);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
     }
 
     @Test
     public void testPackageUninstallBasic() throws Exception {
         addPackage(MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_UID11, INTERNET, UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
 
         when(mPackageManager.getPackagesForUid(MOCK_UID11)).thenReturn(new String[]{});
         mPermissionMonitor.onPackageRemoved(MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_UID11);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_UNINSTALLED, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_UNINSTALLED, MOCK_APPID1);
     }
 
     @Test
     public void testPackageRemoveThenAdd() throws Exception {
         addPackage(MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_UID11, INTERNET, UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
 
         when(mPackageManager.getPackagesForUid(MOCK_UID11)).thenReturn(new String[]{});
         mPermissionMonitor.onPackageRemoved(MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_UID11);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_UNINSTALLED, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_UNINSTALLED, MOCK_APPID1);
 
         addPackage(MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_UID11, INTERNET);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
     }
 
     @Test
     public void testPackageUpdate() throws Exception {
         addPackage(MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_UID11);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_NONE, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_NONE, MOCK_APPID1);
 
         addPackage(MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_UID11, INTERNET);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
     }
 
     @Test
     public void testPackageUninstallWithMultiplePackages() throws Exception {
         addPackage(MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_UID11, INTERNET, UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
 
         // Install another package with the same uid but different permissions.
         addPackage(MOCK_PACKAGE2, MOCK_UID11, INTERNET);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_UID11);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_UID11);
 
         // Uninstall MOCK_PACKAGE1 and expect only INTERNET permission left.
         when(mPackageManager.getPackagesForUid(eq(MOCK_UID11)))
                 .thenReturn(new String[]{MOCK_PACKAGE2});
         mPermissionMonitor.onPackageRemoved(MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_UID11);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
     }
 
     @Test
@@ -876,7 +886,8 @@
         // Use the real context as this test must ensure the *real* system package holds the
         // necessary permission.
         final Context realContext = InstrumentationRegistry.getContext();
-        final PermissionMonitor monitor = new PermissionMonitor(realContext, mNetdService);
+        final PermissionMonitor monitor = new PermissionMonitor(realContext, mNetdService,
+                mBpfNetMaps);
         final PackageManager manager = realContext.getPackageManager();
         final PackageInfo systemInfo = manager.getPackageInfo(REAL_SYSTEM_PACKAGE_NAME,
                 GET_PERMISSIONS | MATCH_ANY_USER);
@@ -891,8 +902,8 @@
                 .thenReturn(new int[]{ MOCK_UID12 });
 
         mPermissionMonitor.startMonitoring();
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID2);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID2);
     }
 
     private BroadcastReceiver expectBroadcastReceiver(String... actions) {
@@ -923,7 +934,7 @@
         buildAndMockPackageInfoWithPermissions(MOCK_PACKAGE1, MOCK_UID11, INTERNET,
                 UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS);
         receiver.onReceive(mContext, addedIntent);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
 
         // Verify receiving PACKAGE_REMOVED intent.
         when(mPackageManager.getPackagesForUid(MOCK_UID11)).thenReturn(new String[]{});
@@ -931,7 +942,7 @@
                 Uri.fromParts("package", MOCK_PACKAGE1, null /* fragment */));
         removedIntent.putExtra(Intent.EXTRA_UID, MOCK_UID11);
         receiver.onReceive(mContext, removedIntent);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_UNINSTALLED, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_UNINSTALLED, MOCK_APPID1);
     }
 
     private ContentObserver expectRegisterContentObserver(Uri expectedUri) {
@@ -1070,7 +1081,7 @@
                 .when(mPackageManager).getInstalledPackagesAsUser(eq(GET_PERMISSIONS), anyInt());
         mPermissionMonitor.startMonitoring();
         mNetdMonitor.expectNoNetworkPerm(new UserHandle[]{MOCK_USER1}, MOCK_APPID1, MOCK_APPID2);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_NONE, MOCK_APPID1, MOCK_APPID2);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_NONE, MOCK_APPID1, MOCK_APPID2);
 
         final BroadcastReceiver receiver = expectBroadcastReceiver(
                 Intent.ACTION_EXTERNAL_APPLICATIONS_AVAILABLE);
@@ -1087,8 +1098,8 @@
                 MOCK_APPID1);
         mNetdMonitor.expectNetworkPerm(PERMISSION_NETWORK, new UserHandle[]{MOCK_USER1},
                 MOCK_APPID2);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS, MOCK_APPID2);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS, MOCK_APPID2);
     }
 
     @Test
@@ -1114,8 +1125,8 @@
                 MOCK_APPID1);
         mNetdMonitor.expectNetworkPerm(PERMISSION_NETWORK, new UserHandle[]{MOCK_USER1},
                 MOCK_APPID2);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS, MOCK_APPID2);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS, MOCK_APPID2);
     }
 
     @Test
@@ -1128,7 +1139,7 @@
                 .when(mPackageManager).getInstalledPackagesAsUser(eq(GET_PERMISSIONS), anyInt());
         mPermissionMonitor.startMonitoring();
         mNetdMonitor.expectNoNetworkPerm(new UserHandle[]{MOCK_USER1}, MOCK_APPID1);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_NONE, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_NONE, MOCK_APPID1);
 
         final BroadcastReceiver receiver = expectBroadcastReceiver(
                 Intent.ACTION_EXTERNAL_APPLICATIONS_AVAILABLE);
@@ -1140,7 +1151,7 @@
         receiver.onReceive(mContext, externalIntent);
         mNetdMonitor.expectNetworkPerm(PERMISSION_NETWORK, new UserHandle[]{MOCK_USER1},
                 MOCK_APPID1);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_UPDATE_DEVICE_STATS, MOCK_APPID1);
     }
 
     @Test
@@ -1155,7 +1166,7 @@
         mPermissionMonitor.startMonitoring();
         mNetdMonitor.expectNetworkPerm(PERMISSION_NETWORK, new UserHandle[]{MOCK_USER1},
                 MOCK_APPID1);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_INTERNET, MOCK_APPID1);
 
         final BroadcastReceiver receiver = expectBroadcastReceiver(
                 Intent.ACTION_EXTERNAL_APPLICATIONS_AVAILABLE);
@@ -1169,7 +1180,7 @@
         receiver.onReceive(mContext, externalIntent);
         mNetdMonitor.expectNetworkPerm(PERMISSION_SYSTEM, new UserHandle[]{MOCK_USER1},
                 MOCK_APPID1);
-        mNetdMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
+        mBpfMapMonitor.expectTrafficPerm(PERMISSION_TRAFFIC_ALL, MOCK_APPID1);
     }
 
     @Test